The Real History of Islam with Raymond Ibrahim

This conversation with Raymond Ibrahim explores the historical origins of Islam, its rapid expansion across the Christian world, the theological and tribal foundations of jihad, and the enduring conflict between Islam and Christendom. It further dives into the nuanced treatment of non-Muslims under Islamic rule, the impact of the Crusades, the complex role of Jews, and the Islamic Golden Age. The discussion also covers the decline of Islamic dominance, the modern challenges posed by Muslim immigration to the West, the compatibility of Islam with liberal democratic values, and the future trajectory of Islam in Western societies.

The Origin of Islam and Muhammad's Early Life

Islam began with the prophet Muhammad, born around 570 AD into the Quraysh tribe in the Arabian Peninsula. Initially a relatively obscure orphan raised by his uncle and married to a wealthy older woman, Khadijah, Muhammad started receiving revelations at about age 40. These revelations, believed by Muslims to be from the angel Gabriel, formed the Quran. Muhammad preached a staunch monotheism in a largely polytheistic Arabia and claimed to be part of a prophetic line stretching from Abraham to Jesus, whom Islam views as a prophet, not divine.

Two Stages of Muhammad's Mission: Mecca and Medina

Muhammad's prophetic career is understood in two stages. From 610 to 622 in Mecca, he was a weak, itinerant preacher with a small following, mainly family, emphasizing religious tolerance ("no coercion in religion"). However, pressured by the Quraysh polytheists, he was driven out in 622 and migrated (Hijra) to Medina. There, Muhammad became a warlord and political leader, beginning a phase of militant expansion through jihad — understood as striving or struggle, historically involving warfare to spread Islamic rule. Submission to Muhammad's call became tied to force and conquest.

The Doctrine of Jihad's Tribal and Theological Fusion

Ibrahim interprets Muhammad's genius as fusing Arabian tribalism — which inherently viewed outsiders as enemies — with Islamic theology, rearticulating tribal warfare as a divinely sanctioned jihad. The Quran commands Muslims to hate non-Muslims, disassociate even from close family if they reject Islam, and enmity should persist until acceptance of Allah alone. This tribalist worldview underpinned the jihad doctrine, incentivizing warfare with worldly spoils and heavenly rewards for martyrs in paradise, described in vivid, material and hedonistic terms.

Early Islamic Conquests and Rapid Expansion

By Muhammad's death, most of the Arabian Peninsula was subdued, but it was under the first three caliphs—Abu Bakr, Omar, and Uthman—that dramatic conquests unfolded. Starting in 636, Muslims conquered Greater Syria, then Egypt, North Africa, and by 711, the Iberian Peninsula. This expansion covered approximately two-thirds of the former Christian world, overtaking key ecclesiastical centers such as Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The rapid success is often explained by the exhaustion of Byzantine and Persian empires, superior desert fighting skills, and tactics of stealth and raiding rather than conventional battle.

Impact on Christendom and the Build-up to the Crusades

The Muslim conquests devastated the Christian world's heartland and led to centuries of conflict, raids, and slavery. Europe, fragmented and weakened, faced dark ages partly attributed to this loss of economic and cultural centers. The Crusades, often misunderstood as unprovoked Christian aggression, were in fact a response to centuries of Muslim raids, destruction, persecution of pilgrims, and incursions by Turkish Muslim forces threatening Byzantium. The immediate cause was the Seljuk Turks' conquest of Asia Minor and harassment of Christian pilgrims and territories, culminating in the call for crusade in 1095 to reclaim the Holy Land and protect eastern Christians.

The Crusades: Successes, Failures, and Legacy

The first Crusade achieved its goal by establishing Christian states in the Levant and securing pilgrimage routes. Subsequent Crusades largely failed to hold or expand these gains, with notable exceptions like the third Crusade that forced a truce with Saladin. The Fourth Crusade controversially sacked Constantinople, diverging from original religious aims and deepening East-West Christian divisions. Despite failures, Crusaders' prolonged resistance against numerically superior Muslim forces is seen as remarkable. The military orders, such as the Templars and Hospitallers, embodied militant Christianity, combining spiritual devotion with physical warfare.

Non-Muslims Under Islamic Rule

Non-Muslims, particularly "People of the Book" (Jews and Christians), were allowed limited tolerated status (dhimmis) subject to the jizya tax and various restrictions codified in agreements like the Pact of Umar. These dictated limitations such as forbidding church building or repair, public displays of religious symbols, and proselytizing. Christians and Jews were second-class citizens, socially marginalized and sometimes subjected to collective punishment. Conversion to Islam was often pressured, especially for pagans, though enforcement varied regionally and over time. The treatment and legal framework for non-Muslims entrenched a system of supremacy and exclusion.

Jews and the Complex Dynamics in Muslim Lands

Jews had varied roles depending on locale and period. In Muslim Spain (Al-Andalus), Jews often lived as protected dhimmis, sometimes aligning with Muslim rulers against Christian forces during the Reconquista, but also facing persecution. The Inquisition targeted both converted Muslims (Moriscos) and Jews (Marranos) suspected of heresy or insincerity. Jewish-Muslim-Christian relations were complex, marked by alliances, betrayals, and shifting power dynamics. In times of upheaval like the Crusades, Jews were frequently scapegoated and targeted by Crusader mobs.

The Islamic Golden Age: Misconceptions and Realities

The so-called Islamic Golden Age, especially during the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad and the Umayyad Caliphate in Spain, is frequently misunderstood. The period's scientific, philosophical, and cultural achievements were largely created by non-Muslims—Christians, Jews, and Persians—who often converted nominally but retained distinct traditions. Islam itself did not foster these advances intrinsically; rather, they occurred despite it. Over time, Islamic theology hardened, closing doors to intellectual freedom and leading to decline.

The Decline of Islamic Dominance and the Rise of the West

Despite maintaining dominance for nearly a millennium, the Islamic world began losing ground with the rise of Europe's colonial powers, technological advancements, and military innovation. The Ottoman Empire, the last great Islamic power, was eventually outpaced by Western militaries and economies despite attempts at modernization. Islamic states, economically reliant on conquest and plunder, faltered when expansion stalled. The West's imperialism was often antagonistic, but also brought education, medicine, and science to many regions previously under Islamic control.

Modern Islamist Movements and Radicalization

Modern radical Islamist groups descend from movements like the Muslim Brotherhood, which advocates gradual subversion of Western societies (civilizational jihad) through legal and ideological means. More extreme factions like al-Qaeda and ISIS embrace overt violence and immediate jihadist warfare to topple secular governments and impose Sharia globally. Radical Islamism is doctrinally rooted in Islamic texts, which prescribe enmity toward non-Muslims, justifying terror and violence. These groups use both ideological and literal terrorism, including appearing in Western countries to conduct attacks and foster fear.

Islam and the West Today: Challenges and Controversies

The contemporary West grapples with the demographic and cultural impact of large-scale Muslim immigration. European nations often invite or tolerate mass Muslim settlement, sometimes motivated by political guilt over colonial history, creating tensions around assimilation, national identity, and security. Many Muslim immigrants, especially second and third generations, become enclaves or ghettos, fostering resentment and radicalization. Extremist ideology thrives in some communities, while moderate Muslims often live secularized or non-observant lives. Western policies may unwittingly empower radical elements while repressing native populations asserting their cultural identity.

Compatibility of Islam with Western Liberal Values

Raymond Ibrahim argues Islam is fundamentally incompatible with core Western values—such as secular governance, religious freedom, and gender equality—because Islamic law governs all aspects of life and requires supremacy of Islam. The doctrine mandates hatred of non-Muslims, forbids blasphemy, and tolerates violence as part of jihad. Hence, peaceful coexistence is challenged by the religion's teachings rather than just selective interpretations. The coexistence seen in pluralistic Western societies is difficult to maintain given Islam's holistic, legalistic, and supremacist framework.

Policy Responses and Future Trajectories

To address these challenges, Ibrahim advocates strict immigration controls, enforcement against illegal entry, monitoring of radical preaching, and dismantling of Muslim ghettos to encourage assimilation. He highlights examples like Hungary and Poland, which restrict Muslim immigration and thus avoid similar problems. Some Muslim-majority countries, particularly in Central Asia, clamp down on radical theology and enforce secular policies, but such measures coexist with official Islamization for legitimacy. Changing or reforming Islam to eliminate jihad and supremacism may fundamentally alter the religion's character, making reconciliation with liberal Western values unlikely under current orthodoxy.

Under-discussed Issues

A key overlooked factor is that the "Islam problem" in the West is less about Muslims themselves and more about Western policies that enable mass Muslim immigration and empower Islamist groups. If democratic governments truly represented their citizens' will, restrictive policies could reverse these trends. Without such political will, the problem persists. Additionally, Western self-degradation and guilt complexes fuel empowerment of radical Islam, as Western societies reject their own heritage and over-accommodate Muslim populations, inadvertently encouraging backlash and radicalization.